Anura Gunasekera
19th June, 2025
Sri Lanka was a hub and a prominent centre of spice trade in the ancient world, in which Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume) or true cinnamon (hereinafter referred to as cinnamon) occupied an exalted position. It was the key spice that attracted Europeans to Sri Lanka (then Ceylon). The Portuguese, who conquered coastal Sri Lanka in the early sixteenth century, wrested the cinnamon trade from the Arabs who had kept it as a jealously guarded secret for many centuries. Following the Portuguese takeover of the cinnamon trade, growing demand for cinnamon throughout the world created a lucrative market that led the Dutch into battle with the Portuguese to gain control of Sri Lanka and thus the cinnamon industry in the mid-seventeenth century. In 1953, in his treatise titled “Ceylon under the British Occupation,” Dr. Colvin R de Silva, a former minister and a legal luminary in Sri Lanka, recorded “If the vagaries of wind and wave brought the Portuguese to Ceylon, the lure of cinnamon kept them in the Island”. According to Fr. Philippus Baldaeus (1732), a Dutch minister, cinnamon was the “Helen or Bride” for whom the Dutch and Portuguese contended for many years. Such was the esteem in which cinnamon was held by Europeans.
From time immemorial, cinnamon has been valued not only as a spice and incense, but also as an antiseptic. The history of cinnamon dates back to about 2800 B.C. and it is even mentioned in the Bible. Ancient Egyptians used cinnamon in mummification because of its antibacterial properties and fragrance, and the Romans used it in perfumes and fragrances and to flavour wines. Around the fourteenth century, Europeans started using cinnamon to improve the keeping quality of meat. It was the quest for spices that led European nations to explore the world in the fifteenth century.
Processing and curing of cinnamon involves a combination of art and skill unique to Sri Lanka and it has been handed down from generation to generation over centuries. The indigenous knowledge and technology used by around 350,000 families engaged in the production and processing of cinnamon has made it a unique cottage industry with a low carbon footprint. Moreover, a special segment of the society engaged in the industry has afforded it a unique eco-friendly character. Thus, cinnamon processing factories in villages have become popular destinations for eco-tourism. Sri Lanka possesses core competencies and competitive advantage over other countries that produce cinnamon and its substitutes owing to its outstandingly rich ecological, edaphic and genetic resources, including several wild relatives. Availability of a competent and dedicated manpower base in the country that has sustained this industry over several centuries amidst manifold obstacles and formidable challenges, particularly during the British rule, has made this cottage industry unique from a historic perspective as well.
Cinnamon, which is indigenous to Sri Lanka, belongs to the family Lauraceae. It possesses remarkable organoleptic, medicinal and anti-microbial properties and has found wide applications in ayurvedic medicine and many industries. Sri Lanka practically commands a monopoly of cinnamon in the global market, accounting for around 90% of its current trade. It is a unique and versatile plant that has oil in its leaves, bark, and roots, the chemical composition of which is completely different in each case. Both bark and leaves contain essential oils, with cinnamaldehyde being predominant in the bark and eugenol in leaves; root-bark oil contains camphor. These substances have a wide range of industrial applications. Cinnamaldehyde is a proven natural bactericide widely used in the food and beverage industry, being particularly effective against Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli. Given its organoleptic, medicinal, germicidal, and carminative properties, cinnamon has found applications in a wide range of industries extending from food and beverage to confectionary, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, cosmeceutical, liqueur, perfumery and oral care, and traditional medicine.
Cinnamon as a medicinal ingredient is recorded in ancient medical texts, such as Susrutha Samhitha in the Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine and ola leaf texts of Sri Lankan traditional medical systems. It is recorded as an important ingredient in several multidrug formulations in the traditional medical texts in Sri Lanka, and those formulations have been used therapeutically to treat a number of ailments. In the Unani system of medicine, cinnamon bark is used as a constituent of a formulation in the treatment of gastrointestinal ailments. Bark oil also forms a component of both Ayurvedic and Unani medicines of India. The bark of cinnamon is used for the treatment of dyspepsia, flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting, bronchitis, and gangrene of the lungs, cramps of the stomach, toothache, and chronic rheumatism. Cinnamon oil is used in aromatherapy to lessen fatigue and relax the body. In addition, Cinnamon has been used in Ayurveda to treat nausea, digestive disorders, painful menstrual problems and respiratory conditions. It has also been used to improve blood circulation, control blood sugar levels and relieve headaches, flu and colds. Its essential oil has been used in soothing nerves and muscle pains. The bark powder has been used in tooth powders, and the oil has been used for medicinal purposes, such as toothaches and dental problems.
The bark of cinnamon possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties which have been internationally published and well documented. They include anti-diabetic, anti-lipidemic (lipid-lowering), anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-nociceptive (inhibiting the sensation of pain), anti-ageing, anti-arthritic and anti-cancer (including breast, brain, cervix, lung, oral and prostrate) and antioxidant. Its oil has been used in medicine as an astringent, a carminative and an antiseptic. Its therapeutic value in slowing down the progression of neurological diseases and metabolic syndrome, i.e. reducing the risk of developing heart diseases, diabetes and stroke is well documented. Cinnamon oil reduces drowsiness, irritability and headaches and also provides relief from indigestion, nausea, vomiting and morning sickness, respiratory problems and menstrual discomfort. Therefore, it possesses a great industrial potential. Detailed information in this regard can be found in Cinnamon: Botany, Agronomy, Chemistry and Industrial Applications” edited by Ranjith Senaratne and Ranjith Pathirana and published by Springer (2020).
Coumarins containing a 1,2-benzopyrone skeleton are widespread in vegetables, fruit, medicinal plants and spices. It serves as a chemical defense against predators. It has been a popular flavouring agent in the food industry due to its pleasant spicy odour, resembling the scent of vanilla. It was revealed in early 1950s that coumarin has hepatotoxic effects. As a result, its use as a flavouring agent was banned by the Food & Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA in 1954. Later, in the early 1960s, coumarin was shown to have carcinogenic properties in long-term animal trials which resulted in carcinomas in the liver, bile ducts and lungs of animals. These observations led to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) setting a limit in 1988 of 2 mg/kg coumarin in food derived from natural spices and herbs.
Cinnamon, which has a highly fragrant aroma and a subtle, delicate, pungent, and sweet taste, contains insignificant traces of coumarin (0.01g kg−1 of bark), a hepatotoxic and carcinogenic hazardous substance. On the other hand, cassia – a cheap and inferior substitute for cinnamon that often commercially passes off as cinnamon – has a bitter, coarse, and strong flavour and contains appreciable quantities of coumarin, i.e. 5–7 g kg−1 of bark and 10 g kg-1 in the extreme (more than 500 – 1,000 times that of cinnamon) and ~ 8% in oil. Yet no distinction has hitherto been made between cinnamon and cassia in global trade, and cinnamon is often adulterated with cheap cassia and sold under the label of cinnamon. In the USA especially cassia is sold as cinnamon. Today, markets are becoming increasingly globalized, sophisticated and dynamic, and consumers are increasingly health conscious. Therefore, there is growing demand for healthy natural foods and beverages, additives and flavours, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and perfumes in the global market which has fueled the growth of the green economy. In view of this change in consumer behavior, preferences, and food habits, there has been a steady increase in the demand for cinnamon by the consumer as well as by a multitude of industries enumerated above. However, since cinnamon is about three to four times more expensive than cassia, and as no trade restrictions have thus far been imposed on cassia even by the EU and the USA, despite the presence of appreciable quantities of coumarin in cassia, it is still used widely as a flavouring agent in Europe, USA and Canada in making confectionaries, Christmas star cookies, almond cookies, gingerbread cake, salads, soup, chocolate, cinnamon tea etc. It is also used in pet food and loss of hair in pets has been observed due to the high content of coumarin. Research investigations conducted in Europe and North America have clearly shown that the level of coumarins found in certain foods and beverages far exceeded the permissible levels established by the regulatory authorities of the respective countries. This poses a serious health hazard, particularly to children. Detailed information in this regard is given in the book on cinnamon referred to above A clear distinction has been made between cinnamon and cassia based on their biochemical profiles, highlighting the presence of a high content of carcinogenic and hepatotoxic coumarin in cassia. However, both cinnamon and cassia are still sold as cinnamon in the global market, and consumers are not aware of the health hazards associated with regular consumption of cassia. Given the proportion of cassia to cinnamon in the global trade of around 9:1, the potential hazardous consequences for human health will be formidable unless appropriate regulatory interventions are made without further delay. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to create global awareness about this issue and enact legislation to make it mandatory to duly label the type of flavoring material used - i.e. cinnamon or cassia - in the interest of consumers. Ceylon cinnamon received geographical indication (GI) in 2022. GI, besides linking a product to a place, recognises the skill and achievement of people who produce it. It is also an endorsement of quality and an acknowledgement of the long tradition and rich history of the production of cinnamon by Sri Lanka. Therefore, it affords a competitive advantage to cinnamon in the global market as well as much needed protection against abuse by others. This will increase the global market for cinnamon when exported as a certified product, promoting the growth of the local cinnamon industry.